Matriarchal Cultures: the Native American Essay

There has long been debate among anthropologists about matriarchal societies. But that is a historical result of last 500 years of European military expansion and extermination of native cultures. There are a few societies whose status as matriarchies is disputed among anthropologists and this is as much a debate about terminology as it is about interpreting how another society defines status and such, their self-understanding as opposed to our imposition of categories on them. Among anthropologists, there are theories that support the plausibility of having prehistoric matriarchies. And if we look more at the complexity of societies, we’re liable to find that the answer to why a particular arrangement developed in particular cases and may vary from case to case. Conversely enough there are many more matrilineal and matrilocal societies. A lot of people tend to interchange the definition of matrilocal and matrilineal with matriarchal. Matrilocal is when a husband who marries a woman must move to her community/village. Matrilineal is a descent system based on unilineal descent that gives the mother’s family certain terms of kinship than the father’s family. Matriarchal is when women have control of a community. Matrilocal and matrilineal societies do not mean that the women hold more power than the men. Inheritance and lineage does not equal power. Whereas, matrifocal is the gravitating toward or centering on the mother. Native American’s were well known to have a matriarchal system. Most early societies were organized around matrilineal lines. Women were the center of society, before agriculture, women generally raised children, cooked, gathered fruits, vegetables, etc. Men hunted. In this role, women were the first scientists. They learned how to cultivate plants, and domesticate animals. They learned methods of food preservation. They learned how to build better houses. Women were the ones responsible for the development of civilization. There were a lot of societies that were both matriarchal and patriarchal before Christianity took over. Some indigenous tribes were accepting of androgyny and women taking on men’s roles before Christianity came into play. Most Native American tribes had traditional gender roles. In some tribes, such as the Iroquois nation, social and clan relationships were matrilineal and or matriarchal, although several different systems were in use. One example is the Cherokee custom of wives owning the family property. Men hunted, traded and made war, while women cared for the young and the elderly, fashioned clothing and instruments and cured meat. The cradle board was used by mothers to carry their baby while working or traveling. However, in some, but not all tribes a kind of transgender was permitted. Apart from making home, women had many tasks that were essential for the survival of the tribes. They made weapons and tools, took care of the roofs of their homes and often helped their men hunt buffalos. In some of the Plains Indian tribes there reportedly were medicine women who gathered herbs and cured the ill. In some of these tribes girls were also encouraged to learn to ride and fight. Though fighting was mostly left to the boys and men, there had been cases of women fighting alongside them, especially when the existence of the tribe was threatened. There has been such a continual misconception as on the position of women among Native Americans. Because she was active, always busy in the camp, often carried heavy burdens, attended to the household duties, made the clothing and the home, and prepared the family food, the woman has been depicted as the slave of her husband, a patient beast of encumbrance whose labors were never done. The man, on the other hand, was said to be a loaf, whom all day long sat in the shade of the lodge and smoked his pipe, while his overworked wives attended to his comfort. In actuality, the woman was the man’s partner, who preformed her share of the obligations of life and who employed an influence quite as important as his, and often more powerful. Native Americans established principal relationships either through a clan system, descent from a common ancestor, or through a friendship system, much like tribal societies in other parts of the world. In the Choctaw nation, â€Å"Moieties were subdivided into several nontotemic, exogamous, matrilineal ‘kindred’ clans, called iksa† (Faiman-Silva, 1997, p. 8). The Cheyenne tribe also traced their ancestry through the woman’s lineage, Moore (1996, p. 154). shows this when he says â€Å"Such marriages, where the groom comes to live in the bride’s band, are called ‘matrilocal’. † Leacock (1971, p. 21) reveals that â€Å"†¦ prevailing opinion is that hunting societies would be patrilocal†¦. Matrilineality, it is assumed, followed the emergence of agriculture†¦. † Leacock (p.21) then stated that she had found the Montagnais-Naskapi, a hunting society, had been matrilocal until Europeans stepped in. â€Å"The Tanoan Pueblos kinship system is bilateral. The household either is of the nuclear type or is extended to include relatives of one or both parents†¦. † (Dozier, 1971, p. 237). The roles and statuses for men and women varied considerably among Native Americans, depending on each tribe’s cultural orientations. In matrilineal and matrilocal societies, women had considerable power because property, housing, land, and tools, belonged to them. Because property usually passed from mother to daughter, and the husband joined his wife’s family, he was more of a stranger and yielded authority to his wife’s eldest brother. As a result, the husband was unlikely to become an authoritative, domineering figure. According to Dozier (1971) Additionally, among such peoples as the Cherokee, Iroquois, and Pueblo, a disgruntled wife, secure in her possessions, could simply divorce her husband by tossing his belongings out of their residence. The Iroquois, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Mohawk, Seneca are a matriarchal societies. In the Iroquois community, women were the keepers of culture. They were responsible for defining the political, social, spiritual and economic norms of the tribe. Iroquois society was matrilineal, meaning descent was traced through the mother rather than through the father. Also, when a couple marries, the man traditionally went to live with the wife’s family. Women’s role in tribal governance was often influential in matrilineal societies, as among the Iroquois, in which the principal civil and religious offices were kept within maternal lineages. The tribal matriarch or a group of tribal matrons nominated each delegate, briefed him before each session, monitored his legislative record, and removed him from office if his conduct displeased the women. Although the leaders were men, it was the Clan Mothers who nominated and elected them, and could remove them from their position. The women made sure the male leadership fulfilled their responsibilities. Iroquois women enjoyed social equality and respect. The Seneca Native Americans were a matriarchal egalitarian culture in that the practice of sur-naming as identifying to the individual was reversed. Women were considered the heads of households in which men married into and changed their last names from their mothers to their wives last names. And the children were given the names of the mothers’ family. Though men were considered the elders and chiefs of each household, during each conference of the families, the female heads of household sat behind the male spokesperson and advised each of them on manners concerning the tribe. In the Northeastern Woodlands and on the Plains, where hunting and warfare demanded strenuous activity away from home, the men often returned exhausted and required a few days to recover. Wearied by both these arduous actions and the religious fasting that usually accompanied them, the men relaxed in the village while the women went about their many tasks. Seeing only female busyness in these native encampments, White observers misinterpreted what they saw and wrote inaccurate stereotypical portrayals of lazy braves and industrious squaws. Such was not the case. In the Southeast and Southwest, men and women performed their daily labors with observable equality because the men did not go out on grueling expeditions as did the men in the Northeast and Plains. In California, the Great Basin, and Northwest Coast, the sexual division of labor fell somewhere between these two variations. Women had certain common tasks in each of the U. S. culture areas: cleaning and maintaining the living quarters, tending to children, gathering edible plants, pounding corn into meal, extracting oil from acorns and nuts, cooking, sewing, packing, and unpacking. Certain crafts were also usually their responsibility: brewing dyes, making pottery, and weaving such items as cloth, baskets, and mats. In the Southwest, however, men sometimes made baskets and pottery, and even weaved cloth. In regions where hunting provided the main food supply, the women were also responsible for house building, processing carcasses of game, preparing hides or furs, and whatever food gathering or farming that could be done. In the mostly agricultural societies in the Eastern Woodlands, the women primarily worked in the fields and the men built the frame houses and both shared duties for preparing hides or furs. Similarly, in the fishing communities of the Northwest, the men built the plank houses and helped with the processing of animal skins. In California and in the Great Basin, most aspects of labor, except the defined female tasks of weaving and basket and pottery making, were shared fairly evenly. In the Southwest, the men did most of the field work, house building, weaving, cloth manufacturing, and animal skin processing. Female prestige among the Iroquois grew greater after the Revolutionary War, and male prestige ebbed due to continual losses and defeats and the inability to do much hunting due to scarcity of game. By the nineteenth century, mothers played a greater role in approving marriage partners for their children and more consistently got custody of their children in a divorce, unlike the uncertainty of custody in earlier times. Among many Southeast tribes the women were influential in tribal councils and in some places they cast the deciding vote for war or peace. The Cherokee designated a female as â€Å"Beloved Woman,† through whom they believed the Great Spirit spoke. Consequently, her words were always heard but not necessarily heeded. However, she headed the influential Woman’s Council, sat as a voting member of the Council of Chiefs, and exercised considerable influence. She also unhesitantly used her absolute authority over prisoners. When she died, a successor would be chosen. Cherokee women were strong, hardworking, and very powerful within their community. The Cheyenne held women in particularly high regard. They played an influential role in determining warfare and sometimes even fought alongside the men. Upon a war party’s successful return, the women danced about while waving the scalps, exhibited their men’s shields and weapons, and derived honors from their husbands’ deeds. Property possession, inheritance, power, and influence rested on whether a tribe’s structure was in matrilineal or patrilineal. Although a few universal female-designated work tasks existed, like cleaning, nurturing, edible plant gathering, food preparation, cooking, packing, and unpacking, others varied by region, means of food production, and social organization. Such variances in gender roles further exemplify the diversity that existed among Native Americans. Summing it all up, a Matriarchy is a type of society, which is distinguished from all other types of societies by the absence of power structures and institutionalized hierarchies. The means of production are commonly owned and set of rules prevent the accumulation of possessions or power. Compared to socialist or communist systems they are characterized by the absence of a centralized administration and ruling authority. Decisions concerning every area of life are made by consensus including all genders and generations. During my research of women-run societies, some fundamental differences from predominantly male-run societies become pretty clear, and quite obviously a different view than that of Western culture today. A much greater emphasis is placed on communal participation than that of societies run by men, which tend to be more hegemonic. Children, case in point, belong to the whole community rather than to a single family, I have always heard the saying â€Å"it takes a village to raise a child† I don’t know the origins of that but it is well known in African-American culture. Also, for example land is shared instead of partitioned off. What I ascertain from this, is that societies run by women stand to be more egalitarian, more nurturing, and perhaps more just. So going forth in Western culture today the idea of a matriarchy has always fascinated people, men as well as women. In the midst of women starting to dominate the professional world more and men falling behind in education it would appear that we’re on a sure path to becoming a matriarchal or egalitarian society, it seems if that word makes more people comfortable in this day and age. In my opinion and looking at the data, Women are gaining power as a gender and men are losing it. That alone is doubtful to bring about a complete matriarchy but it certainly will have matriarchal elements. Works Cited Bruhns, Karen Olsen, and Karen E. Stothert. 1999. Women in Ancient America. University of Oklahoma, Norman Dozier, E. P. , (1971). The american southwest. In Leacock, E. B. , & Lurie, N. O. (Eds. ), North american indians in historical perspective. Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc. Faiman-Silva, S. (1997). Choctaws at the crossroads. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Gero, J. M. ja M. W. Conkey, editors. 1991. Engendering Archaeology: Women and prehistory. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Leacock, E. B. (1971). Introduction. In Leacock, E. B. , & Lurie, N. O. (Eds. ), North american indians in historical perspective. Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc. Lerner, Gerda. 1986. The creation of patriarchy. New York: Oxford University Press. Moore, J. H. (1996). The cheyenne. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers Inc. Reiter, Rayna R. , editor. 1975. Toward an anthropology of women. New York: Monthly Review press.

Rich and Unhappy or Poor and Happy

* Choosing a career that pays well, but makes a person unhappy, and choosing a career that   makes a person   happy,but does not pay well. What is the purpose of life? What is the one thing that truly matters in order to experience a meaningful, gratifying existence? Some people might say that love and happiness are all one needs in order to live a fulfilling life, where no amount of materialistic wealth will amount to the same level of contentment as a life where one’s career is something that one strongly believes in and has passion for.Others, however, might argue that the only path to an enjoyable life is when one is able to live luxuriously. To have the finest, rarest, most expensive items or clothing is to have value and importance in society, which in turn, makes life worth living. In order to reach this stage, necessary steps need to be taken even if it causes unhappiness doing so.Choosing a career that ensures a generous paycheck will guarantee a life filled with materialistic commodities, but it doesn’t guarantee the benefits of a career that entices them, such as the drive or desire to work and the gratification one feels that might affect their emotional well being for the better. Yet, Choosing a career that sparks interest and passion guarantees a feeling of fulfillment but may not guarantee a substantial enough pay to enjoy some of society’s luxuries, such as the ability to travel or not having to worry about putting food on the table which otherwise might lead to stress that is harmful to one’s health.In a perfect world, everyone would be able to choose a career that houses both aspects, but alas, that is not the way the world works. Should one choose a career that pays well, but makes one unhappy? Or should one choose a career that makes one happy, but barely pays the rent. A life filled with the luxuries that our society provides can be seen by many to be a much-desired way to live. For them, the end result overc omes the means to get there, such as a stressful, unrewarding career who’s only redeeming aspect is a substantial paycheck.The ability to purchase the materialistic objects of ones desires, such as a fancy car, or a big house, is enough for some people to put themselves through school in a programme that doesn’t stimulate them emotionally, or intellectually. Nevertheless, with the disposable income, one would be able to take part in activities outside of work that is enjoyable and stimulating, like traveling or going to various cultural events that are out of reach for those with lower incomes.However, while one may be enjoying life outside of work, the harsh reality is that one spends the majority of the week at ones job, so in reality, a huge portion of one’s life is spent in apathy and indifference if the work doesn’t invoke any sort of enjoyment. As this continues over the years, depression is likely to follow due to the constant dread and lethargy th at goes along with the job, and the realization that it will be like that day in and day out for years to come.For those who choose this way of life, happiness equates to the number of possessions they gained with their hard earned money, regardless of the mundane work they had to go through in order to achieve it, unless of course, they realize they made a huge mistake choosing money over their actual dreams and aspirations when its already too late. Other people have a completely different view of life as the ones who value money in high regard.These people see the benefits of a life filled with things that give them satisfaction, with the choice of career being a huge component of it. When one decides to spend the rest of ones life doing something that one is passionate and excited about, the wage it garners wouldn’t be high on one’s list of concerns, especially if it means that waking up every morning wouldn’t be such a dreaded daily event. The mere thought of spending another day doing something one enjoys is enough to keep one motivated throughout the longevity of their career.There are a few instances however, that may cause certain hesitation. For example, a young aspiring artist might be satisfied with a one-bedroom that doubles as their studio while eating ramen noodles for breakfast, lunch and dinner for now, but what if down the road they decide they want to settle down and have a family before they are able to make a profit from their art, which might not never even happen in the first place? The pressure of this realization and the constant worry of having to make ends meet could be detrimental down the line.Soon, the joys that the job brings could be overshadowed by the stress produced by this situation. Fortunately, most people that choose to go down this path are able to make ends meet and are content with living in the simplest terms as long as their lives revolve around the career of their liking. The decision of choosin g which career path to take is probably one the most important, tear-inducing decisions a person has to make in their lifetime. It will dictate the way their life will go from that day forward nd the means on which they must live by. Whether it is a career that will bestow significant financial gain, or a career that will bestow significant personal gain, the decision rests on the personal opinions of the individual’s definition of a happy life. Even though this decision is entirely subjective, there is a stat that is worth mentioning; over a third of an average person’s life is spent working. Is being able to by the latest Prada really worth hating a massive part of one’s existence?

Equal opportunity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Equal opportunity - Essay Example Parents who adopt such professions that allow them to spend more time with their children are better able to take care of their children’s education as compared to the parents that leave it up to the tutors to guide the children through everything. Parental involvement in school enhances a child’s self esteem and he/she is able to achieve more (Klepfer, n.d.). Not just that, educated parents can also improve the mannerism of their children because â€Å"the children will mimic the parents’ attitude and behavior despite whatever they learn in school† (DHRRA, 2009). Likewise, people who earn more are able to educate their children in better schools. Good education is often quite expensive. Schools that charge the parents lesser for the child’s education compromise upon the quality of education. Hence, highly earning parents can provide their children with education in better schools. Owing to the difference of socioeconomic status of parents, all chil dren do not have equal opportunities of achievement in the school. References: DHRRA. (2009). Parents’ Role in Children’s Education. Retrieved from http://www.dhrramalaysia.org.my/dhrramalaysia/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=100:parents-role-in-childrens-education&catid=36:child-programmes&Itemid=64. Klepfer, J. (n.d.).

Protaganist and Antagoinist Character Bio Research Paper

Protaganist and Antagoinist Character Bio - Research Paper Example Joey was the youngest amongst his sibling and was the dearest to his father, Louie Bucceri. Bucceri was from Sicily, and he was a shrewd businessman, he died in an attack by mob, which was planted by Rokov. Loss of his father was a seere blow for Joey, he spent most of his childhood on the streets of New York until he was recruited in Naval Academy. The troubled past, did not let him develop any strong relationships in the adult life, he was charged for domestic violence, and beating his wife. After spending three years in jail, Joey’s return was unwelcomed by his family, as his wife did not allowed him to see his daughters, moreover, due to criminal record of felony he was not accepted by any office as an employee. The best he could was to work with builders. Joey was under severe depression, and to lose to contact from harsh realities of life, he indulged himself in to excessive drinking. During these grim days of his life, Joey had only one friend Skinny or Dino Baldino. While everything was falling apart in Joey’s life, he decided to give one last short at life; he decided to win back his family’s business from the ruthless Rokov. The battle between the two orphans, each trying to gain authority and vengeance for their dead fathers will create havoc, for all others who are related to them; perhaps in this case Joey has the advantage, because he has not much to lose. Ex-commissioner of hockey, the owner of seven casinos in Vegas, Victor Rokov is a Russian by origin. His personality may be treated as an antisocial one; however, there are various dimensions within Rokov’s character. The journey of his development, from his father’s death to present day casino-empire is based on several twists and turns. Rokov’s father was an owner of a strip club in New York.He was burder in bad blood by Italian Mafia.Rokov who was still very

An economical analysis of the car market in Saudi Arabia Essay

An economical analysis of the car market in Saudi Arabia - Essay Example The region has been affected by the Arab uprising causing many economies to strain. The move by the government of Saudi Arabia to inject US$37 billion into the economic social initiatives is likely to improve the consumer purchasing power (Hutchison and Davies 42). This has increased the sales and revenues in the motor vehicle sector. Most retailers and importers in the country have started dealership expansion programs. This paper gives an economic analysis of the car market in Saudi Arabia. The car market in the country has been bent towards high-end models. However, there is a propensity towards purchases in the lower-priced family cars. The cars to small and their running cost are economical. The demand for family cars is expected to rise with increase in population (IMF, 2008). In 2010, the market for ultra-luxury cars grew by 39 percent. Porsche and Lexus have opened high-end servicing centers in anticipation for rising demand. Commercial vehicles are responsible for 20 percent of the demand for auto mobile products in Saudi Arabia. The increasing spending in government infrastructure and the demand created by visiting pilgrims continues to be a major boost in the sector. Literature review Saudi Arabia remains the largest importer of vehicles in Middle East (Hutchison and Davies 42). ... This has affected the car industry positively (IMF, 2008). In 2009, about 600,000 units were purchased. This represented a sales rise of 1 percent. However, the demand for vehicles grew by 12 percent in the following year (Ahmed, 103). The flood situation in Thailand and the tsunami in Japan affected the supply chains in the Saudi market (Hutchison and Davies 42). This resulted to 0.7 percent decline. The growth in demand for private vehicles was inversely proportional to the commercial vehicles in 2011 (IMF, 2008). The automobile industry is dominated by Japanese brands (Abushakra, 19). This accounts for over 60 percent. Increased competition from Korean brands is making the automobile industry favorable to the customers (Hutchison and Davies 42). The Korean brands are low priced and offer improved quality (Abushakra, 19). The trends in the automobile market share are changing as new market entrants gain momentum in the local market (Hutchison and Davies 42). The young generation is getting draw to small cars causing a shift of preference. The expansion in the private sector is responsible for the surge in demand for small cars (Hakes, 51). The automotive sector in the Saudi market is expected to grow by about 7 percent in the next two years. The imports are might grow to over one million cars (IMF, 2008). The financial support for the importation of cars is on the increase as banks offer increased credit to support supply levels (Hakes, 51). The oil revenues continue to support the fiscal position of the government. Increased spending on the infrastructure is causing the demand for vehicles to remain high (Ahmed, 103). The modernizing of transport facilities in the kingdom will result in sustainable development (Hutchison and Davies 42). The

Econ2010-4 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Econ2010-4 - Assignment Example es identifying â€Å"Social Cost†; market â€Å"equilibrium quantity consumed and price†; â€Å"external cost of antibiotic use†; â€Å"deadweight loss†; â€Å"efficient equilibrium† if one exists; and â€Å"private value†. 3. Earlier in the Economics 2010 course we learned that a tax on an ordinary good increases deadweight loss. Does the same impact result with the imposition of a tax on a good with an external cost? Explain. Yes; a tax would cause a change in the equilibrium price and quantity resulting to a inefficient market. 4. Explain the use of the â€Å"COASE THEOREM† in solving private problems of externalities. Under what conditions does the Coase Theorem breakdown as a mechanism for solving private externality issues and restoring efficient market equilibrium allocation? Explain. The theorem states that in case there is a conflict of property rights the parties involved may negotiate on terms that seem to be more beneficial to them than the assigned rights of the property. The theorem will breakdown when there are huge costs associated with bargaining. 5. Explain and/or graph with explanation the difference between controlling and regulating a negative externality by use of a â€Å"Corrective Tax†; a â€Å"Pollution permit system and market†, or a â€Å"Command and control† regulation. Explain the pros and cons of these 3 types of resolution of the negative externality problem. It is the summation of all the sales that a company makes together with other additional sources if incomes for a given period of time during the production process for a given product. It is usually given as Total revenue = price Ãâ€" quantity + other incomes Opportunity cost is the cost that somebody suffers for choosing the alternative decision over the other and it is always considered that the best choice is made between the options; the lesser privileged choice is foregone to pursue the other for more benefits to be yielded. The cost of the neglected choice is considered

International Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

International Economics - Essay Example As a substitute, the United Nations supports the use of special drawing rights (SDRs), a creation of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) – a proposal supported by Russia (Bryanski, 2009). The SDR is the designated international reserve asset that is the unit of payment on IMF loans; it has an advantage over the US dollar in that its valuation is calibrated against a basked of currencies, rather than on the currency of a single country. Preferably, however, the UN recommends the establishment of a new reserve system that is not based on just one or even several currencies, but should instead serve the need for stable international liquidity. In response, several European officials expressed their disagreement, citing the market as the ultimate determinant of which currencies countries would hold in reserve. Several have voiced the concern that political or administrative decisions cannot reformulate the world’s currency system (Vayrynen, in Charbonneau, 2010), and in the entire post-war period the currency exchange system had been based on the U.S. dollar (Sundaram, in Charbonneau, 2010). EU officials fear that any intervention by an administrative body into the workings of the market would just create additional problems and would make things even less predictable (Piebalgs, in Charbonneau, 2010). Some simply reject the idea of an artificial currency as the SDR as the reserve currency of the international financial system, stating that it is a non-starter because it is created by political decision making (Al-Jasser, in Kessler, 2009). Based on this scenario, some sectors have voiced the possibility that the yuan (or renminbi), the currency of China, may in the span of a decade gain the status of reserve currency and present itself as a suitable alternative to replace the U.S. dollar. Supporters cite the relative stability of the Yuan during the recent financial crisis, saying that it is a better holder of value than the dollar. This

How Does Music Influence Human Nature Particularly In the Youth Research Paper

How Does Music Influence Human Nature Particularly In the Youth - Research Paper Example f a person’s mood is turned into excitement when he or she listens to a particular type of music, every time that kind of music is played will lead to a subsequent change in the person’s mood. This is subsequently portrayed in his or her behavior as he or she listens to the music. According to the cognitive theory, the brain has the ability to learn through repeated experiences; thus, listening to music can train the brain to respond differently depending on the music on the background (O’Donnell Para 3). People have different preferences of music. This is because the brain in different people responds differently to different external stimuli. Among the youths, there is a growing trend of the young people forming their friendship cliques based on the type of music they enjoy. Those who listen to hip hop music will most likely only associate with their counterparts who enjoy similar genres of music. Following this societal phenomenon among the youths, there has e merged distinct cultures among the youths in which the members’ behaviors are unique and parallel to the behaviors depicted by the music artists (Chen, Miller & Grube 3). Learning in human beings is mainly through observation. When the youths watch music videos, they adopt the dressing styles from the musicians and they behave in the same way as they see the people in the video acting. This has eroded the minds of a large percentage of teenagers in the society. While the musicians may only be acting to market their music, the youths take their behaviors seriously and they end up behaving in ways that could be regarded as immoral. Many parents are complaining about their teenagers’ dressing styles, especially for the youths who listen to rap music (O’Donnell Para 4). The youth stage in life is a very... This paper stresses that music is a very feasible avenue for influencing change in the society. The changes in the society are normally as a result of changes on individuals within the community. Different types of music have different effects on the listeners. This is because some types of music have messages that easily alter the way of thinking of the listeners. In the world today, musicians make music with themes that are controversial on ethical grounds. Violence is the order of the day in the music industries, particularly when focusing on hip hop and rap music. It has been proven that the human mind learns a lot through observation and perception. This means that when the youths who are the major target group for musicians, listen and watch violent music, they are highly likely to embrace violence in their personalities. This report makes a conclusion that music may have a positive effect on the listeners. Music with positive messages has been used to influence the youths to quit their evil ways. The youth stage in life comes along with many challenges. Music is a feasible tool that has been used to guide the youths through the challenging times. Most musicians base the message in their music on their personal past experiences and this serves as a motivational factor to the youths going through similar experiences. Music changes the mood of people and they may use it to sooth themselves when they are nervous or when they are exhausted. Psychologists have used music as a viable treatment for certain mental conditions on nervousness. The behavior of the youths may be altered for the better through music

Current government priorities Essay Example for Free

Current government priorities Essay How far does the budget reflect current government priorities? Governments view of the economy could be summed up in a few short phrases: If it moves, tax it. If it keeps moving, regulate it. And if it stops moving, subsidise it Ronald Reagan In my coursework I shall be discovering what the annual government budget is, what it is spent on and why, correlating this with current priorities. I shall be investigating to what extent does the governments expenditure reflect on these current government priorities i. e. the amount spent on defence, the education sector and social protection. I shall be mostly using secondary research, through using websites and maybe books. I will compare spending from previous budgets to the current one and find out where changes, if any, have been made. Through figuring out where the money is spent, I can discover what the main priorities are but not neglecting the fact that some sectors are larger and undoubtedly require money being spent, e.g. Healthcare and public order safety. Government expenditure is vital for the efficient running of the economy. The need for much of the government expenditure arises from the facts that some goods will not be provided at all by a free market economy (public goods) and that others will be under-provided (merit goods). It is spending on these goods that accounts for a large proportion of government spending (health, education, police and defence, among others). Some government expenditure is aimed at providing a safety net for the less well off in society and ensuring that they are able to survive in the event that they lose their jobs or have insufficient income. The department that deals with the allocation of most of this money is the Department of Social Security. Other government expenditure is aimed at various areas that may be considered important in a developed economy providing a transport infrastructure, supporting the work of local government and servicing any debts that may have been accumulated in the past. Fiscal policy refers to government policy that attempts to influence the direction of the economy through changes in government spending or taxes. Fiscal policy can be contrasted with the other main type of economic policy, monetary policy which attempts to stabilize the economy by controlling interest rates and the supply of money. The government in power needs to ensure that the budget expenditure is divided correctly and proportionately to the areas that require it most. This depends on the government priorities. The two main instruments of fiscal policy are government spending and taxation. Changes in the level and composition of taxation and government spending can impact on the following variables in the economy: On aggregate demand and the level of economic activity; the pattern of resource allocation and the distribution of income. Fiscal policy is the use of government expenditure and taxation to manage the economy. The main changes in fiscal policy happen once a year in the Budget. It is in the Budget that the Chancellor sets the levels of taxation and government expenditure for the next fiscal year. The fiscal year runs from 6th April one year until 5th April the following year. This is why the budget is usually in March. The changes in it come generally into effect in the following month. Fiscal policy is based on the theories of British economist John Maynard Keynes. Also known as Keynesian economics, this theory basically states that governments can influence macroeconomic productivity levels by increasing or decreasing tax levels and public spending. This influence, in turn, curbs inflation (generally considered to be healthy when at a level between 2-3%), increases employment and maintains a healthy value of money. Unfortunately, the effects of any fiscal policy are not the same on everyone. Depending on the political orientations and goals of the policymakers, a tax cut could affect only the middle class, which is typically the largest economic group. In times of economic decline and rising taxation, it is this same group that may have to pay more taxes than the wealthier upper class. Similarly, when a government decides to adjust its spending; its policy may affect only a specific group of people. A decision to build a new bridge, for example, will give work and more income to hundreds of construction workers. A decision to spend money on building a new space shuttle, on the other hand, benefits only a small, specialized pool of experts, which would not do much to increase aggregate employment levels. Graph to show inflation rates in the UK compared with the United States and Canada. Monetary Policy involves changes in the base rate of interest to influence the rate of growth of aggregate demand, the money supply and ultimately price inflation. Monetarist economists believe that monetary policy is a more powerful weapon than fiscal policy in controlling inflation. Monetary policy also involves changes in the value of the exchange rate since fluctuations in the currency also impact on macroeconomic activity (incomes, output and prices). Basically, it is the process by which the government/ bank controls the supply of money, or trading in foreign exchange markets. Monetary policy is generally referred to as either being an expansionary policy, or a contractionary policy, where an expansionary policy increases the total supply of money in the economy, and a contractionary policy decreases the total money supply. Expansionary policy is traditionally used to combat unemployment in a recession by lowering interest rates, while contractionary policy has the goal of raising interest rates to combat inflation or calming an overheated economy. The government receives its money from many different areas, the graph on the next page shows exactly where from and how much: As from the chart we can see that the largest proportion of governments income is due to income tax that at à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½157bn it is à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½63bn more than the 2nd largest. Tax comes in many forms, as shown by the chart and when totaled up it is à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½587bn, this breaks down to à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½9,650 for every man, woman and child in the UK per year. What is the money used for and spent on? Well the money that the government has gathered from its many different forms of tax is spent entirely on the public. The pie chart below clearly represents what these different sectors are and how much money is actually spent on them. As we can see social protection is predominantly the largest sector that government spending is allocated with a à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½57bn lead on the second largest, health, at à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½104bn. From this chart it can be easy to assume that the areas with the largest spending would be those that are the largest priorities. That can be accepted to a certain extent to where you look deeper within that and take into account that some sectors are larger than others and therefore require more money to keep them running, i.e. social protection. Now I shall look at the different sectors and analyze each one, looking at the governments main aims and objectives and comparing whether the money they are spending on each one is reflecting that; for example if in public order and safety the government wanted to initiate huge crackdown on underage drinkers and vandalism then surely the money spent in that area would be increased dramatically. I shall compare what was spent on those sectors in the year 2006 and compare that with the budget released in 2007. Taking into account inflation, which from 2006 to 2007 was 3% I can work out whether spending, has increased by a lot, remained the same or dropped. To begin with I shall look at the area of social protection, which is the largest of all spending. Social protection consists of policies and programs designed to reduce poverty and vulnerability by promoting efficient labor markets, diminishing peoples exposure to risks, enhancing their capacity to protect themselves against hazards and interruption or loss of income. In 2006 the government spent à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½151bn on social protection whereas in 2007 they spent à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½161bn, which even after taking into account inflation this is still a dramatic increase. This could by due to the fact that unemployment has risen from 2006 2007 and with employment and training being an area of social protection, more money is being spent to try and bring the figures down again. The next sector that I shall look at is the environment. Protecting the environment is a major concern for todays government; well it has been for many years but even more so now. As Britains industry continues to expand and destroy most of our beloved countryside and pollute our skies, pressure groups and environmentalists increase the strain on the government to protect and instigate new legislation to help reduce the effects of the unstoppable industry. In attempts to keep these groups happy the government invests more money every year to meet their demands. Examples of these include the à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½800m environmental transformation fund and funding for cleaner ways to produce energy such as wind farms and nuclear power. There has been an increase of expenditure for housing and environment from 2006 2007 of à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½4bn, which concludes the fact that it is an ever-increasing issue. This research indicates that current government spending in the environment does directly reflect the fact that is a main priority. In the past 3 years it has shown that the government has increased its spending by around à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½4bn per annum on the environment. If compared with other sections of spending, the environment ranks lower in comparison with others, such as social protection. This could signify that the environment is not classed as such a high priority; although relating to my earlier point of stating that the some areas are larger and therefore require more money suggests that it is not less of a priority. However, it could also be due to the fact that the government believes that protection of the population and the healthcare too are more of a priority than preserving the environment. So it can be looked at in both ways. I myself believe that the government thinks the environment is less of a priority and therefore less money should be invested there. Healthcare in Britain is different to that in most other countries in the way that we have adopted a system called the National Health Service. The NHS is paid for through our taxes and so therefore offers healthcare for everyone in the UK and securing the provision of comprehensive, high quality care for all those who need it, regardless of their ability to pay or where they live or their age. The aims set out by the Department of Health are to: * Supporting activity at national level to protect, promote and improve the nations health; * Securing responsive social care and child protection for those who lack the support they need. The key objectives for pursuing these aims are to: * To reduce the incidence of avoidable illness, disease and injury in the population. * To treat people with illness, disease or injury quickly, effectively and on the basis of need alone. * To enable people, who are unable to perform essential activities of daily living, including those with chronic illness, disability or terminal illness, to live as full and normal lives as possible. * To maximise the social development of children within stable family settings. These aims and objectives are generic to most years of the NHS but as research and new technologies develop the spending must increase to match demands of the population. In 2002 the Chancellor of the Exchequer announced that by 2008 there would be the largest ever increase in health spending at à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½40bn. This is a huge enlargement of the budget spending and obviously shows that health is a main priority if the government is willing to increase its spending by this much. It has been released that every year there shall be an increase of around 4% on health spending. Although the government is injecting a large section of the budget into health care it is not dramatically increasing it every year and sacrificing other sectors money to pour more into healthcare. The government is slowly increasing the amount spent in health and all the time, every year introducing new legislations and targets to make the NHS a more efficient and improved service for everyone within the UK. We are determined to maintain our disciplined approach, determined not to make the old British mistakes of paying ourselves too much today at the cost of higher interest rates and fewer jobs tomorrow Gordon Brown This quote suggests that by not putting too much money into a single sector it reduces the chances of having an economic backlash in the future. I agree with this and believe that by making smaller steps and gradually increasing expenditure it improves the economy at a much greater scale in the long run and prevents unwanted repercussions that may damage the economy. By pushing more money into the sectors it could cause the desired effect to become counter-productive and hinder more than help. Some people believe that the budget is only increasing in the health sector by such amounts because the ongoing criticisms have driven the government to improve its image and please the people to keep the current party in power. Fostering high standards of education is the Governments greatest responsibility. In England this responsibility lies with the Departments for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF). About 93 per cent of children are educated in state-run primary and secondary schools; the remainder go to independent schools that rely on privately-paid tuition fees. Through these central government organisations, the provision of education in the UK includes monitoring and improving standards in schools, colleges and universities; ensuring that everyone no matter what disability or special need they may have is included and has access to high quality education; promoting work experience for young people and vocational training for employees; and encouraging lifelong learning. Through the British Council, the Government actively promotes education in the UK to countries all over the world. Other major organisations help to guide and make welcome some 275,000 overseas students who currently enjoy the advantages of living and studying in the UK. Before June 2007 schools were the responsibility of the former Department for Education and Skills. Education is gradually becoming increasingly more important within the UK as greater than ever numbers of young graduates roam the job market relegating others without degrees into a league of themselves. To employers education is the main thing they look at on CVs, dismissing experience and background for the simple number on the piece of paper. So education is a main priority for the government to try and make Britains children as well qualified as they can be, pushing the economy further up the ladder and improving things for all. So education for the government has became a huge priority and this can be shown by the recent announcement to raise the school minimum leaving age to 18; offering college courses and apprenticeships and also A-Levels to every child. Implementing this new legislation would obviously require a huge increase in the budget allocated for education, which would either mean another increased tax, which has happened for the past 11 years while Gordon Brown had been Chancellor, or sacrificing other areas of spending to improve education. Making these decisions requires undoubtedly many months of thinking and consultation before arriving at a suitable judgment. In the 2007 budget report, the government announced that investment in education and skills would rise to à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½90bn by 2010/2011. In a clearer spectrum, there is a à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½4bn increase from 2006 to 2007 then a à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½5bn increase from 2007 to 2008 and therefore proves that the government is gradually increasing the percentage increase spent on education annually. In evaluation it can be said that although there isnt a dramatic increase in the spending on the education sector, there are other factors that affect the efficiency of it too. For example money may not be being spent efficiently in the employment and the social protection areas, which are having a direct effect on the education, this can easily be mistaken as problems within the education spending rather than stepping back and realising that it could be issues somewhere else. Increasing the funding in education and training programs could significantly reduce unemployment levels (a major concern for the government) and increase the productivity per worker. In the UK the productivity per worker is substantially lower than other countries such as the US and Germany by as far as 30% in 2002. I believe that education is a major priority for the current government as competition from other countries towers above Britain and with the productivity per worker as low as it is, surely suggests that something within the education sector must be improved to raise our working standards. As the investment in education carries on rising at such rates it must be taken for granted it is becoming an even greater priority, especially with other countries almost mocking us with their efficiency. In 2007 we missed 24 of our 57 targets set by the government in education which raised awareness of the problem widely and brought it to the forefront of priorities. I believe in Britain we need better qualifications to lower unemployment and bring our workforce into the productivity ranges we need to compete with other countries or otherwise our place in the worlds economy will gradually being to fall. In comparison with previous years spending the 2007 budget does not seem to have any major, out of place differences with previous years and generally it appears every sector has just risen with the same annual percentage. However it is within these sectors where the money expenditure has changed. Implementing new legislations and programs, eliminating ineffective ideas and changing the dynamics of how each area is run is where the change in money being spent has taken place. This is a pie chart to represent the budget was spent in 2006: In 2007: In conclusion the amount spent on each sector does reflect the amount to which it is a priority but many other factors must be taken into account when judging that. Some areas such as social protection are such a far larger sector than that of industry, agriculture, employment and training and therefore will ultimately require more money to keep it running smoothly and keep the economic balance. Other areas may be of greater importance and priority such as education, but by spending ridiculous amounts of money on it will be counter-productive and cause many long term problems so despite the fact it is more of a priority, by spending less money on it does not reflect that. By reviewing past years budgets and comparing them with more recent ones it is possible to find where greater amounts of spending has occurred and what sectors are gradually having a greater percentage increase in their spending annually. Another reason why spending doesnt reflect current government priorities is because although spending may not increase that much, time and effort to reorganise and implement new legislation to improve an area could equally suggest that it is a priority but money would not solve it, just improving the efficiency would. Sometimes spending money on one area will directly affect another positively anyway such as improving education will also improve employment and training. As a general rule the governments role is to keep inflation low, keep unemployment low, balance in international trade and maintain a flourishing and prospering economy. The government has been investing large amounts of money into training schemes and other projects that have ultimately led to the unemployment rate falling to 5.2% in February 2008. The claimant count was 793,500 in February 2008, down 2,800 over the previous month and down 126,500 over the year. This is the lowest figure since June 1975. The claimant count has now fallen for 17 consecutive months. This shows that the investments into training and education has led to the fall in unemployment which proves my theory that spending in other sectors subsequently helps others. One could just quite plainly say that the government spending does not reflect current government priorities or otherwise if it did then there would be a perfect economy because the money spent would be used to its full potential in exactly the right places, doing exactly the right thing; lowering unemployment, improving healthcare, lowering inflation etc. I believe that the difference in the previous budget and the current one describes the extent to which the budget reflects current government priorities better than the looking at the budget itself as the current priorities will determine how much spending will increase in each sector and those with the larger increases (after taking into account inflation) show that they are more of a priority than those with little or no increase. Generally, the government invests the money into areas which is sees to be crucial for the future, so dependent on the priorities, the budget is spent taking into account these and areas of needed development; so if it isnt spent directly reflecting government priorities, it has taken these into account and spent it most wisely considering areas that need improvement but are not always priorities. Bibliography http://tutor2u.net/economics/content/topics/fiscalpolicy/public_spending.htm http://www.bized.co.uk/virtual/economy/policy/tools/government/ http://tutor2u.net/economics/content/topics/fiscalpolicy/public_spending.htm http://www.bized.co.uk/virtual/economy/policy/tools/government/gexpex.htm http://budget2007.treasury.gov.uk/page_09.htm http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/budget/budget_07/bud_bud07_index.cfm http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/spending_review/spend_index.cfm http://budget2006.treasury.gov.uk/page_09.html http://www.adb.org/SocialProtection/default.asp http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/Documents/UK_Economy/Fiscal_Policy/ukecon_fisc_policy99.cfm http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780198776222/carlin_chap05.pdf http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/index.htm http://www.ntd.co.uk/idsbookshop/details.asp?id=844 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/ http://www.bized.co.uk/virtual/bank/business/external/policy/expl.htm http://www.pm.gov.uk/output/Page7489.asp

Effects that plants growing in overcrowded conditions

Effects that plants growing in overcrowded conditions This report is examining the effects that plants growing in overcrowded conditions go through and what affects overcrowding has on seedlings making comparisons to plants which have been grown in normal/ideal special conditions. It also includes literature research into the different methods which are used for the growth of plants in both commercial settings and private setting and which method suits this investigation s purposes best. It gives results in both observational and quantitative ways and explains/gives definitions for words that may not have been understood. Introduction: This is an investigation to discover what happens to a plant population of germinating seeds that are grown in overcrowded conditions compared to the germination of seeds that are grown in an area where they are sufficient nutrients, space and light. Literature research: Terms: Germination the beginning of growth for a seed , the beginnings of a new plant 1 Loam soil soil composed of sand, silt, and clay in relatively even concentration. Loam soils generally contain more nutrients and humus than sandy soils, have better infiltration and drainage than silty soils, and are easier to till than clay soils. Loams are gritty, moist, and retain water easily. 2 Horticulture the industry and science of plant cultivation including the process of preparing soil for the planting of seeds, tubers, or cuttings. 3 Overcrowding when the number of organisms exceed the carrying capacity of an area (in this investigation it will be the soil) 4 Vermiculite any of a group micaceous hydrated silicate minerals related to the chlorites and used in heat-expanded form as insulation and as a planting medium. 5 Hydroponics the cultivation of plants in a nutrient-rich solution, rather than in soil, and under controlled conditions of light, temperature, and humidity. Also called aquaculture. 6 Ideal germination conditions for 3 plant species: 1. Radish (Raphanus sativus) sandy loam soil that has been tilled is ideal for germination and growth, seeds need to be planted at the write depth for the seed to germinate properly, 1cm for small radishes and 4cm for large radishes. Will germinate between 3 and 7 days and is ready for harvesting in about 4 weeks. 2. Pea (Pisum sativum) soak the seed in water for about 4 hours before planting it, plant the seeds in rows. The seeds should be planted about 2cm deep between 6 -8 cm apart. Water them daily as they require lots and use organic mulch. 3. California poppy (Eschscholzia californica) sow in soil that is in full sun, these poppies like soil that is of a poor soil condition. Sow directly onto the soil and then dig the seeds in and add water and germination will begin within a few days. Germination methods used by horticulturalists Method Pro s Con s Growth in cotton wool Can observe the germination process easily The roots become entangled in the cotton wool and it may become difficult to remove the seed from the cotton wool Growth in vermiculite Adds nutrients to the plants environment Holds water very well so that plants don t experience a shortage Research shows no disadvantages Hydroponics No soil is needed Nutrient levels in the water are control for each type of plant Stable and large yields of plants No major pest problems Plants may become infected with Verticillium wilt due to the high moisture levels Water and nutrient costs may be expensive Evidence and measurement of growth in plants: Measuring the space between the internodes of along the stem of the plant Measuring the size of the leaves, by measuring the length of the leaves along its mid vein to the node where it connects to the stem Counting the number of leaves on the plant Checking the weight of the plant (will not be used in this investigation as it requires a large number of plants and will result in plants being removed from the soil so that they can be weighted, this will most likely result in the death of the plant.). Possible effects of overcrowding: Radish size of the root (part which is harvested) will be greatly reduced, size of the leaves will be small and few leaves will be present, very tall stems. Pea reduced size and number of leaves, flowering rate will be reduced, pods will be greatly reduced in size California poppy lives very well in malnourished soil and in overcrowded conditions How may overcrowding be overcome by the plant? Will grow tall thin stems and try to grow higher than other plants, roots system will be very small. Stems as a result of being tall and thin are unable to support the weight of the leaves and the plant collapses. Horticulturalists solve the problem of overcrowding by providing the plants with sufficient resources that they require for grow. They also remove the plants from the greenhouses before them become too big. If overcrowding does occur they separate the plants and give them sufficient space, they will also dispose of any weak plants that will not grow properly. Investigation: Hypothesis: The overcrowded plants will develop weak stems and their growth rates will be hampered due to lack of nutrients. Aim: To investigate the effects of overcrowding on germinating seeds and the effects of overcrowding on the growth of seedlings. Variables: Independent variable the number of radish seeds planted in each seedling tray. Dependent variable the growth of the plants in terms of their stem length and size of their leaves. Fixed variables the size of the seedlings trays must be the same size, the amount of soil placed in the seedling trays is filled to the same point, the amount of water given to each seedling tray must be equal in this case 500ml every 2nd day. Apparatus: Two seedling trays Potting soil Radish seeds Ruler/measuring tape Water Camera Method: Fill two equally sized seedling trays with sand to the same point. Moisten the soil and prepare it for planting the seeds. Using Radish seeds, plant 9 seeds in the 1st tray using the conditions indicated on the back of the seeds packaging then in the 2nd tray plant at least 45 seeds in close proximity to each other. Once seeds have been planted place the trays in a hot house Once germination has taken place and the plants have begun growing out of the soil measure the length of the stem and the length of the mid-vein in the leaves every 4 days. Measure the growth of the plants over a period of 40 days Results: Observations: Seeds were plant the 26th January 2011 After 2 days the soil began to lift in the overcrowded tray On the 3rd day the seedling were beginning to emerge from the soil in the overcrowded tray On the 5th day the seedling in the ideal conditions tray began to emerge from the soil The overcrowded seedlings grew at a very fast rate in comparison to the ideal conditions seedling The growth rate of the overcrowded population plants slowed down where as the ideal conditions population plants grew at a steady rate On the night of the 15th of February 2011 the majority of the ideal conditions plant population s and some the overcrowded plants population s where eaten, possibly by slugs Seedling trays were removed from the hot house so that they remain plants would survive and so the damaged ones could recover Damaged plant s stems began to shrink as the secondary leaves were getting ready to grow, once the secondary leaves had begun to grow larger and the plants were receiving food from being able to photosynthesis again, the stems began growing taller again In the overcrowded tray the smaller plants stopped growing and the larger plants began to go limp as their stems became too long and too thin to support the weight of the leaves Some of the overcrowded plants began to experience their leaves going yellow and the plants starting to die off due to lack of resources See appendix figure 4 for picture of leaves yellowing Quantitative results: For tables of results see appendix Figure 1 Figure 2 Discussion: The length of the leaves in the ideal conditions plant population on the 16th day was so low compared to the leaves length on the 12th day due to the leaves having been eaten two days earlier by suspected to be slugs. The greater growth rate experienced in the overcrowded plant population in the first few days was most likely caused by chemical released by the seeds to encourage growth and as they are in such close proximity and there are so many it may cause them to have an overload of the chemical resulting the extremely fast initial growth rate. Conclusion: The overcrowded plants grew at faster rate than that of the ideal conditions plants yet the overcrowded plants became weak very quickly and as a result weaker plants remained small or died and taller plants grew flimsy. The ideal plants grew to be stronger and healthier plants despite that they were partially eaten.

The Concept Of Identity In Society

The Concept Of Identity In Society The concept of identity is described in numerous different ways such as the I, Me, personality, self and essence. These offer a starting point for us to attempt to understand and explain who and what we are internally and within the external world .There are various theories that have been developed to help us make sense of what contributes to our identity. These theories examine the factors that can build, shape and change our identity, covering aspects such as the structure of society, our interactions with others and past experiences. Identity could be defined as being directly relevant to associated characteristics of an individuals character or of a group. Identity can be viewed as a both passive and active form, it can be used to help others define us which is usually not controllable by that individual it can also be relevant to how we as individuals view ourselves.(Macionis and plummer,2008). There are various forms of the self and identity the three main groups most individuals are able to place themselves within .These are the collective self, the individual self and the relational self. The concept of identity in modern western society has shifted as a result of changes in ideology and society. These changes have included industrialisation where subjects act as workers who move around for work and have a identity that is flexible and not rigid within social structure and enlightenment where subjects are able to change their identities and create new choices and choosing new value systems (Michael.A, 2008) The relationship of identity in the structural sense and the actual power an individual has over their identity has been critically analysed by theorists such as Goffman (1999) and Garfinkel (1984) have placed emphasis on the way individuals can develop and mould identity using language.Mead describes a similar form of interaction where personality, interaction and social structure provide a framework that can then be used for an understanding of identity (Choudry,2010,p11). To examine the various theories that contributes to the study of identity in regards to investigating societies understanding of older people. This will be looked at using the following structure, firstly looking at ways in which age forms an identity will be considered. Secondly, the influence of theorists on attempting to understand the process by which this identity is created will be examined. Third, the concept of stigma and its repercussions will be discussed. Finally, the role and identity both personal an d professional of the Social Worker as an agent between structural aspects and the impact of this role on the service user. How old an individual is and how this influences identity varies and can be interpreted differently from different personal perspectives and cultures. From an objective sense age is simply the culmination of a process that is begun at birth and one that is given certain social indicators (Taylor and field, 2007, p.113). Older people or old age in many societies worldwide is not clearly defined but usually a term used when referring to someone a few years older than the individual being referred to (Miller,2008). Various cultural views can produce pressure on who is considered young or as an older person within society. This can vary according to cultural context (Stephens and Leach, 1998,p.475). The implications of being identified as an older person can cause tension between the potential conflict of the individuals view of their identity and the structural view . In traditional society, the identity of the elderly is often a prescribed element, that presupposes norms of clothing and behaviour (Taylor and field, 2007).Other members that belong to that particular traditional society are projected with ideals of how to behave in a manner suited to people of an older age a manner that would change for another person of similar age (Stepehns and Leach, 1998, p. 476) . These assumptions have the ability to reduce the amount of power a older person has as they are defined and categorised based on visible characteristics rather than as a whole person (Miller,2008). Therefore social workers interpretation of an older person should fully consider the relationship between identity ,older people and structural factors.An older person may not view themselves as simply fitting in to a p articular category such as older person even if society is able to do so. There are many different sociological theories that can assist in understanding contemporary societies attitude to identity when referring to older people (Giddens,2000 ,p.521).Within social work acknowledging and utilising the right of self determinism is an important part of the framework created when providing support and assistance to older people(Miller, 008 , P4). When identifying a person in need the role of the social worker could include providing a range of suitable options to choose from. However the social worker would provide the older person with the tools to make an independent decision. This can be explained by the adherence to identification in terms of the agency exerted by the older person (Franzese,2009,p.71).It is important that the social worker refrains from categorising the elderly originating from the perspective of an older person but viewing as an independent individual in need (Franeze,2009).To assume without proof about the lack of ability of an older per son must be avoided. This can create a tendency to make judgements and disempowered the service user, leading to lack of understanding in regards to the care and support required. Especially in regards the older persons ability to make independent informed choices based on a understanding of their life and being the expert within their own situations. Although there are types of illnesses such as mental health issues that tend to occur more in the elderly than in the younger generation the social worker needs to assume the service user is capable -so regardless of how the service user is generally presenting him o herself unless presented with proof that suggests otherwise. Using this method in social work and emphasising the person centred approach can be explained through understanding the right to self determinism and empowerment (Kim, 1991). To practice effectively the social work must actively avoid becoming complacent with the attitudes towards older people projected through d ominate discourse in contemporary society. This discourse projects identity on to individuals using age as way of categorising the social work need to provide the individual with the right to self-determination. This is a difficult perspective to maintain when the structure of society promotes and accepts the idea of defining individuals in regards to age (Giddens,2000).This is also difficult to maintain when surrounded with many resources that are provided to those in need by social services that are allocated based on age and therefore creating restrictions if an individual does not fall into that age bracket. Therefore suggesting it is difficult to completely avoid catergosring older people as this is the system used in the society they exist in. This can be examined by looking at psychosocial identity, although Giddens suggests that we are reflexive agents we may have a smaller agency than what is suggested (Newman and Newman,2008).This suggests the rationale model of decision making for an individual is limited in its uses ; the choices we make are usually created for us to some extent as they are usually made when need or desire ansd the actually outcome only clear after the choice has been made.(Newman and Newman, 2008). Consequently an older person may experience the limitation of making a rational choice in regards to their identity as these choices may be made from a particular need. The older persons rational choices maybe affected by anxieties and fears surrounding their identity. As a result the role of the agent is quite limited in regards to the way interaction occurs between agent and structure. Therefore the individual has less choice than what may be assumed. Another important element for understanding identity in relation to contemporary social work is the subject of stigmatism. Stigma can be explained as a loss of individual social identity and status that occurs when an individual is simply looked upon as a member of a group with shared characteristics (Giles et al., 1990).The concept of being an older person could be looked upon as a creation of society rather than something that has naturally developed through positive association. This is relevant to older people as stigma can produce problems as it relates a number of conditioned to older people, stereotyping them (Giddens, 2000).Bringing in ethical practice a better way to avoid projecting identity on to an older person it would be more effective to avoid placing stigma upon the older person.With messages provided by the media in various forms such as television advertisements that depict older people as suffering from illness and being in need. When only provided with these image s of older people not stigmatising within social work would appear to be problematic. Structural aspects such as bureaucratism and globalisation make community self determinism and professional independence very difficult if not impossible (Bowles et al,2006).There is an conception that older people after being classified as older change from being active to passive members of society with limited involvement and are limited in their self-determinism. Goffman proposed a definition of stigma that emphasisies the differences between the virtual self in social identity and the actual social identity.(Goffman, 1969) Tension that has been identified by Sociological theory therefore is concerned largely with the interaction between the agency of an individual against the stigma that may be imposed upon the concept of the elderly, and their own right to self-identity (Newman and Newman, 2008, p.388). To an extent, as is represented by the psycho-social theoretical standpoint, it is difficult to argue from the perspective of interactionism the ways in which the individual has a significant agency in order to combat this perspective (Macionis and Plummer, 2008, p.76). Garfunkel (1967) argues that language is used as an active means by which individuals shape the identity around them. Rather than accepting a social identity that is imposed by the social structure in which they find themselves, individuals are active participants in the creation of such categories (Stephens and Leach, 1998, p.24). Of course, given that much of the social stigma associated with ageing stems from the ways in which the el derly are portrayed as mentally unstable, passive victims with mobility issues, all of which can be supported with a certain degree of statistical evidence, the ways in which individuals can rail against the stigma is problematic (Newman and Newman, 2008, p.289). However, the stigma is better understood as a blanket type definition applied to all individuals within a certain category ignoring the extent to which they fall into such categories. Identity theories, particularly from an interactionist perspective, are quite limited in their approach to describing how each individual holds their ability to actively define themselves in opposition to such stigma. The use of identity theories are not only significant for the ways in which Social Workers treat the elderly but can be seen as useful understanding the means by which the individual appreciates their own impact upon the context (Giddens, 2000, p.522). In particular, an understanding of the interaction between agency and structure can help the individual reflect on the extent to which certain roles are almost predefined by the context in which they find themselves (Haslam, 2003, p.99). First, the Social Workers role can be interpreted in the way in which they can be seen as part of the social structure. The fact that the provision of services can be interpreted in a negative fashion as the imposition of structure allows the individual to assess their own role and position within this context. Furthermore, the individual must appreciate their own potential for agency within the structure in the attempts provided for the avoidance of oppressive practice (Newman and Newman, 2008, p.388) . An important element of this process is in the use of reflective practice which allows the Social Worker to assess their own individual approaches and their emotions to the servo e provision. The extent to which they view the elderly with a stigma, or make assumptions regarding their ability to provide their own active approach to their own identity can be self-assessed. In many cases, it is possible for the Social Worker to adopt the Goffman idea of a distanced role, where they play a role in the service provision that fits various notions of the ideal way that such services can be provided without stigma (Goffman, 1963, p.54). This will involve occluding their true feelings or impressions of an individual, and the reflective practice allows them to assess and understand their approach to the subject (Goffman, 1999, p.16). The notion of the importance of agency within this context is therefore a key way in which Sociological Theories have affected Social Work practice. A range of effects have a significant effect on the way in which individuals are influenced in their identity (Giddens, 2000, p.522). In many such cases it is almost impossible for the elderly to exert their own level of agency in order to resist the categorisation and the accompanying stigma that often applies. In many cases, this can occur as the result of active influences on the part of the individual themselves, even if it is a distanced social role as suggested by Goffman (1999). The important influence of such theories upon the understanding of identity, however, fall into the area where the Social Worker can be seen as part of an active element of the structuration process (Zastrow, 2009, p.59). This is a difficult role to avoid on account of the fact that despite the ways in which agency is emphasised for the individual for whom care is provided, the provision of services is often defined by age rather than simply by need. From the perspective that to avoid stigma as a whole , it could be expected that the various requirements of the elderly may come under different remits, such as mobility issues coming under the disabled remit; and in many cases this does continue (Zastrow, 2009, p.61). However, the fact that certain benefits are available to the elderly on the basis of age alone means that the Social Worker remains an agent, albeit an active one, of the notion that age defines a social identity. This social identity therefore means that there is a subgroup of services that would be provided, and this perhaps undermines the active attempts to avoid imposing stigma on the concept of the the elderly and allow the individuals to impose their own agency. The most useful forms of identity theory would appear to ultimately stem from Lemert and Mead, that emphasise the position of an interaction between structure and agency (Franzese, 2009, p.71). As has been described in the previous discussion, elements that emphasise the process of either agency or the role of structure tend to miss the point of the way in which elderly people interact with the definitions that are applied to an identity. For the Social Worker there are numerous advantages that can be gained from an understanding of such theoretical contributions and the influence of different theories can help understand the requirement to avoid stigma and the emphasis that is made in Social Work to the process of individualisation, despite the inherent contradictions that can exist in the way in which services are provided. Social Work is essentially a part of society and represents and reflects the processes within it; as such, Sociological theories will always be of use in explai ning and describing the ways in which different processes form a part of practice (Franzese, 2009, p.71).

Absurdity in Albert Camus’ The Stranger Essay -- The Outsider Essays

The word "absurd" or "absurdity" is very peculiar in that there is no clear definition for the term. Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary gave its definition of "absurd" as "having no rational or orderly relationship to human life: meaningless, also: lacking order or value." Many existential philosophers have defined it in their own manner. Soren Kierkegarrd, a pre-World War II German philosopher, defined absurd as "that quality of Christian faith which runs counter to all reasonable human expectation" (Woelfel 40). Jean-Paul Sartre a post-WW II French philosopher, felt that absurd was "the sheer contingency or ‘thereness’ or gratuitousness of the world" (Woelfel 41). Both of these definitions are hard to interpret and for the most part are not how Camus viewed the word absurd. Camus gives his interpretation of absurd in his book The Myth of Sisyphus, which is the point at which man realizes that all the struggles that we put forth in a repeated daily cycle are in all actuality completely meaningless (Woelfel 44). In James W. Woelfel’s book, Camus: A Theological Perspective, he gives us Camus point of absurdity in detail, I have said that the world is not absurd. Neither is man the strange animal absurd. What is then? The absurd, Camus says, is precisely the relationship between man, who demands ultimate rationality, and his irrational world: the "confrontation between the human need and the unreasonable silence of the world" (Camus, Myth 21). †¦ man experiences himself as other than his natural environment and as wanting more than it can yield†¦nature has produced a being with needs it cannot fulfill. The juxtaposition of the human need for ultimate meaning with the ultimate lack of meaning yielded by the universe is the a... ...tranger.’† Storybites.com. Storybites, 2011. Web. 26 August 2015. "Absurd."   Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary.   http://www.merriam-webster.com/ Web. 26 August 2015. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/absurd Braun, Lev.   Albert Camus:   Moralist of the Absurd.   Cranbury: Associated UP, 1974. Camus, Albert.   The Myth of Sisyphus.   Trans. Justin O'Brien.   New York: Vintage, 1955. ---.   The Stranger.   Trans. Matthew Ward.   New York: Vintage, 1988. Ellison, David R.   Understanding Albert Camus.   Columbia: U of South Carolina P, 1990. Masters, Brian.   Camus: A Study.   London: Heinemann, 1974. McCarthy, Patrick.   Camus: The Stranger.   Cambridge UP, 1988. Todd, Oliver.   Albert Camus: A Life.   Trans. Benjamin Ivry.   New York: Knopf, 1997. Woelfel, James W.   Camus: A Theological Perspective.   New York: Abingdon, 1975.   

Cat Statuettes in Ancient Egypt and Modern America :: Advertisement Symbolism History Essays

Cat Statuettes in Ancient Egypt and Modern America Although ancient Egyptians admired similar statuettes of cats as modern Americans collect today, the Egyptians saw these statuettes as religious symbols with long histories, and the modern Americans see these statuettes as a way of showing the love and admiration that they feel towards their cats. An advertisement for a porcelain statuettes that was made to look like an Egyptian cat statuette shows that this type of statuette survived for a very long time. It is made out of a type of porcelain and its earrings are made out of gold. It has a glass dome covering it and at its base are Egyptian hieroglyphics that are hand painted. (Cats (Vol.52, November 1996) p. 11) This advertisement, that I found in the November 1996 issue of "Cats" magazine, is aimed at people who love cats and most likely have cats as pets. The rest of the magazine confirms the fact that it is meant for people who own cats. The other articles are mostly about cat nutrition and health. The other advertisements also involve cats. These advertisements included cat Christmas tree ornaments, cat jewelry, and cat soap. There were many different representations of cats in ancient Egyptian art. There were also many cat statuettes. The one I thought most closely represented the cat statuettes in the advertisement is the bronze "Gayer-Anderson" cat. (Jasomir Malek, Cats in Ancient Egypt ( London: British Museum Press, 1993) pp.12 ) It was named after the collector who donated it to the British Museum. Made around 600B.C., its body is made out of bronze with inlaid silver as well as gold earrings and a gold nose ring.(Jasomir Malek, Cats in Ancient Egypt ( London: British Museum Press, 1993)pp.12) It was made for a totally different purpose than the modern cat statuettes. During this time there was an increase in the number of cults that used animals as their cult images. These statuette were probably used as representations of the goddess Bastet.(Jasomir Malek, Cats in Ancient Egypt ( London: British Museum Press, 1993) pp.98 ) The goddess Bastet enjoyed what could be called the greatest increase of po pularity of all the animals who were part of these cults.(Jasomir Malek, Cats in Ancient Egypt ( London: British Museum Press, 1993) pp. 98 ) The large number of bronze statuette that were made during this time clearly illustrated the cat's immense popularity.

Moral Ambiguity in Heart of Darkness Essay

In _Heart of Darkness_, by Joseph Conrad, the character Marlow, through his actions and experiences, shows himself to be morally ambiguous in that he goes on the European’s malevolent expedition to Africa yet he seems to despise the events he sees there and in that he performs both noble and ignoble deeds. These experiences and actions drive Conrad’s theme of European influence and colonialism corrupting, in this case, Africa. Marlow is a sailor who is traveling through Africa on a steam boat and who works for a company that is attempting to gain riches for Europe. His moral ambiguity is shown by the fact that he is participating in this heinous expedition yet, at the same time, he seems to despise it. Marlow, as he sailed along the coast, saw â€Å"a man-of-war anchored off the coast†¦shelling the bush†¦There was a touch of insanity in the proceeding†¦ [which] was not dissipated by somebody on board assuring me earnestly there was a camp of natives â₠¬â€œ he called them enemies! – hidden out of sight somewhere.† (pg.18 ). Marlow’s word choice depicts the corrupting influence of Europe because it speaks of how he saw a man-of-war, a French ship, attack natives who were, in his opinion, unjustly called enemies. What truly shows this to be a corrupting influence, however, is his use of the word â€Å"insanity† to describe the event; insanity here is meant to show that this event, caused by Europeans, is unnatural to Africa and disrupts its calm. Next, Marlow spoke of other Europeans who came to Africa such as the â€Å"devoted band†¦called†¦the Eldorado Exploring Expedition†¦ To tear treasure out of the bowels of the land was their desire†¦with no†¦moral purpose at the back of it† (pg. 42). The Eldorado Expedition, as Marlow saw it, was the typical devoted European band which he felt was nothing but a bunch of dirty thieves -with no regard for the greater good- who, through their actions, would desecrate Africa by ripping away its riches. Finally, Marlow, as he was walking with Kurtz’s admirer, saw â€Å"heads on stakes†¦They showed that Kurtz lacked restraint in the gratification of his various lusts.† (pg. 81). Kurtz is a European who was sent by the company to get the treasures of Africa for Europe and to colonize it, but, when Marlow sees what Kurtz does he says that Kurtz is  unable to restrain his lust. This, in and of itself, may seem unimportant, but, it infers that all the Europeans going to Africa are driven by lust and the main function of lust is traditionally corruption, hence, the Europeans going to Africa will do nothing but corrupt it. In addition to utilizing Marlow’s experience, Joseph Conrad utilizes Marlow’s conflicting actions in order, not only to reinforce Marlow’s moral ambiguity, but to further depict the corrupting influence of Europe on Africa. The first thing the Conrad did was have Marlow take â€Å"the pose of a Buddha preaching in European clothes and without a lotus-flower† (pg. 8 ) Here Marlow acts like Buddha, a symbol of someone who is enlightened and good, which makes it clear that everything Marlow says is true and that his ul timate opinion, that being that Europe corrupts, is an absolute truth. Next Marlow empathetically said, â€Å"‘Nevertheless I think Mr. Kurtz is a remarkable man'† (pg. 88 ) Marlow’s action appears to contrast with the perfection given to him by his earlier Buddha pose because he is supporting and admiring Kurtz, the person who took his lust to the extreme and the person who represents the ultimate level of European corruption. Marlow, however, must be right about Kurtz’s remarkable nature in some way because he is portrayed as Buddha though, contrary to what one might think at the beginning of the book, this portrayal does not portend moral perfection on Marlow’s part as shown later in the book. The only way in which Kurtz is remarkable is in his excessive level of lust; hence, Marlow’s statement implies that Europe is a ceaselessly corrupting influence, varying only in the degree of corruption from person to person. Finally, Marlow, when observing Kurtz’s wife, sees, â€Å"the faith that [is] in herâ₠¬ ¦that great saving illusion [shining] with an unearthly glow in the†¦triumphant darkness† (pg 107). Marlow’s observation shows that in a world of corruption and darkness, the European world, Kurtz’s wife deludes herself by creating a world of light and good in her own mind, this fact is necessary in order to understand the importance of the exchange following this observation. The exchange between Marlow and Kurtz’s wife begins with Marlow unwisely saying, â€Å"I heard his very last words† (pg. 109) leading to Kurtz’s wife asking him to â€Å"‘Repeat them’†¦in a heart broken tone'† (pg. 109) and, although Kurtz’s true last words were â€Å"‘The horror! the horror!'† (pg. 109) Marlow told her that, â€Å"‘The last word he pronounced was – your name'† (pg. 109). The importance of this conversation is that it shows the reality  of Kurtz’s vision, that being â€Å"the horror†, through Marlow’s noble lie. It was already shown that Kurtz’s wife lived in an illusionary world, this, combined with Marlow lying to her when she asked for Kurtz’s last words, shows that what Kurtz saw of Europe, a horror, was the truth. Conveniently, Marlow’s act of not shattering Kurtz’s wife’s illusion contrasts with his support of Kurtz, which caused him to seem vile, thus making it impossible to legitimately argue that Marlow is wholly good or bad, only that he is right. Marlow, through his experiences and actions, is depicted as a moral ambiguity and this ambiguity is the tool with which Joseph Conrad develops his theme of European corruption on other peoples and places. Marlow participates in the heinous European expedition yet his opinion of the events he sees are negative thus demonstrating the corrupting influence of Europe, and his actions, which present him as both enlightened and morally ambiguous, also emphasizes the corrupting influence of Europe through the expression of his opinion. Ironically, his ambiguity is symbolic of the ambiguity of the Europeans themselves in that go to other places, such as Africa, with intentions akin to enlightening the people they encounter but, despite the fact that they may succeed in enlightening those people, they corrupt them as well.

Cell Phones Do Not Cause Any Health Problems

In today’s world, cell phones are part of a life. As the technology improves more and more people are buying cell phones. Many new cell phones are like a small computer, as they have a picture and video camera, web browsing, music player, internal storage, and many other features. â€Å"Statistics show that 79% of the U. S. population and 90% of European and Asian teens own a cell phone† (O’Keefe, 2008, p. 671). In some countries around the world such as Israel, Hong Kong, Italy, and the Czech Republic, there are more cell phones than people (Kohli, Sachdev, & Vats, 2009, p. ). In 1993, a man named David Raynard from Florida appeared on the Larry King Live and accused a cell phone industry that his wife died because of cancer that was caused by a cell the use. From that time cell phone radiation has been one of main concerns to people (Park, 2001, p. 166), but since then several studies have proved that cell phones do not cause any health problems. There are two types of radiations, ionizing and non-ionizing. Ionizing radiation consists of Gamma rays, X-Rays and ultraviolet radiation. Ionizing radiation has enough energy to damage the nucleus of atoms causing damage to DNA which could lead to changes in chemical reactions in the body (How Cell-phone Radiation Works, 2001). Cell phones function at 900 or 1800 MHz frequencies. These frequencies fall within the same part of the radiation spectrum as the radios and televisions which are referred to Radio Frequency Radiation. Radio Frequency Radiation falls in the range of non-ionizing radiation (Kohli, Sachdev, & Vats, 2009, p. 6). Non-ionizing radiation consists of radio, television, cell phones, microwave, and visible light (â€Å"How Cell-phone Radiation Works†, 2001). Non- ionizing radiation has enough energy to change the energy levels of the electron, but doesn’t have enough energy to destroy or move any part of an atom. This causes increase in heat level of the area that could be close to source of radiation. This states that RFR from cell phone does not harm the human tissue from heat. Besides the heating of the tissues, there are some other theories that say â€Å"extremely low frequency magnetic fields† might affect the production of some antioxidants and/or stop the production of the chemicals that stop cellular mutation. There is also another theory that says low frequency electromagnetic fields change the structure of DNA, but these are just theories for now (Kohli, Sachdev, & Vats, 2009, p. 6). For the electronic devices not to cause harm, the law requires safety standards to limit and periodically update the maximum amount of exposure to Radio Frequency Radiation. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has issued standards for general public and working people. Working people refers to those people who are working in an area where they are exposed to Radio Frequency Radiation. Exposure limit for working people is higher than the general public, because working people are aware that they are being exposed to the radiation unlike the general public that is not aware of the exposure and cannot avoid or decrease the exposure (Barnes, 1999, p. 21). The limit for exposure for working people is 0. 4W/kg and for the public is 0. 08W/kg. Effects of Radio Frequency Radiation from cell phone and cell phone stations are investigated by the World Health Organization (WHO). â€Å"According to WHO, exposure to [Radio Frequency Radiation] from base stations is actually only 0. 002% to 2% of the levels of international exposure guidelines, lower or comparable to exposure from radio or television. † (Kohli, Sachdev, & Vats, 2009, p. 7). WHO is also helping the researchers to fully understand Radio Frequency Radiation exposure. There have many researches that have been done trying to look for a link between cancer and cell phone radiation. Some studies have been done by collecting data from records and looking for any links between cell phone and cancer. While other actually test at affect of cell phone on living beings. These researches test to see how much radiation was absorbed and even after that if increases the chances of having health problems One of biggest researches included a study that was done in Denmark. IT included a list of cell phone users that subscribed from January 1982 until December 1995. The list was obtained from the two cell phone companies that provided service to the user in the Denmark. The list also contained contact information of the cell phone users, and what kinds of cell phones they were using at that time. Many of the users had to be excluded because there was not enough information to support the research. The final list had about (420,000 users) 80. 3 percent of users that were on the first list obtained from the cell phone companies. The median age for cell phone users was 37. 4 years and 38. 4 years for female cell phone users. Another list was obtained from Danish Cancer Registry that was used to determine the number of cancers from January 1982 to December 1995. The cancer list contained many different types of cancers including brain tumours and urinary tract papilloma that occurred to cell phone users. That list also separated sex and five year groupings. Most of the cell phone users subscribed to the service during the years 1994 and 1995. Using the statistics from the cancer report, expected numbers of cancers were predicted. The results from the study showed that the usage of cell phone did not increase the number of cancers to be found in male cell phone users. For female cell phone users the results were similar as males and did not show any increase in number of cancers. The number of people with brain cancer actually decreased even when the number of cell phone users increased dramatically; however there was increase in a few types of cancer, but the increase showed no relationship between the cell phone and cancer. The study also showed decrease in lung cancer after 1992 because of the decrease in prices of cell phones in Denmark. The usage of cell phones showed decrease in lung cancer because users were more likely to use a cell phone than some cigarettes. Many young people were spending more money on cell phone rather than buying cigarettes. In conclusion of this study, the results show no increase in any type of cancer that was related to cell phone use. (Johansen, Boice, McLaughlin, & Olsen, 2001, p. 203-207). Another research was done in India to determine the neurological effect of electromagnetic radiation emitted by cell phone, when cell phone is kept at different positions close to the body, by analysis of heart rate variability (sample entropy and scaling exponent). The study included fourteen male aged between 24 and 46. Electrocardiogram was used for 30 minutes on each volunteer to obtain recordings with three different situations. The heart rate of the volunteers was also recorded during all three situations. First situation was to get normal recordings without a call phone. Second situation was to have the cell phone in the left pocket so that it is closer to the heart. In the third situation, the cell phone was placed near the left ear. A thirty-minute break was given between each recording. Dame cell phone was used for the recordings. The results determined sample entropy and scaling exponent indicated an increase when cell phone was placed near the chest and a decrease when cell phone is placed near the head. However, the differences were not that high enough when compared to recordings from without using a cell phone simple because cell phones emit very low power to cause any significant change to heart rate that can be detected. (Ahamed, Karthick, & Hoseph, 2008, p. 709-711). There have been several studies that found that cell phone radiation increases the risk of cancer, but later when some of those studies were studied again, it was stated that cell phone radiation does not increase the risk of cancer. A study in Australia in 1996 found that FM and TV towers increased the rates of leukemia in children, but in a later study it was determined that towers showed no increase of risk from the exposure. Two different studies were done in Sweden and found the increase in number brain tumours from cell phone radiation, but when the one of these studies was repeated, it found no increase in brain tumours. Once again when the same study was done later on, it found increase of risk developing tumour. After International Agency of Research in Cancer sponsored the research and no evidence was found that cause increase the risk of tumours. Kohli, Sachdev, & Vats, 2009, p. 8). The studies about cell phone radiation have many limitations that prevent them from completely accurate answers. Several factors contribute to this such as there are not that many researches that researched for more than ten years, documents that show amount of cell phone usage are possibly to be bias, amount of Radio Frequ ency Radiation depends on type of cell phone and the location of the cell phone, and also it is almost impossible to test Radio Frequency Radiation exposure in an isolated area because there are always other objects emitting Radio Frequency Radiation. These types of limitations produce different answers sometimes to a study when it is repeated. It is possible for some researchers to bias to state their point. (Kohli, Sachdev, & Vats, 2009, p. 7). In conclusion, there been many researches trying to find the answer to cell phone radiation and its possible effects. Some state that there is an increase in risk of cancer and other health problems, however some researches state that there no increase in risk of cancer and other health problems. (Kohli, Sachdev, & Vats, 2009, p. 7). To have improved future researches, the studies should be longer, ongoing for at least ten to fifteen years. There should be a study that is done throughout different countries in the world in both rural and urban areas. In my opinion, cell phone radiation does not increase the risk of any disease. If that was not the case then anybody who uses a cell phone would already have brain tumour and there would been a dramatic decrease in population. For at least now I think there are enough studies that support the no increase in risk developing health problems and everyone should believe those studies.